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It has long been believed that the largest entity brought upon the Earth by humankind is the Pyramid of the Sun, constructed in Mexico around the start of the Christian era. The mammoth structure commands nearly thirty million cubic feet of space. In contrast, however, is the Durham Road Landfill, outside San Francisco, which occupies over seventy million cubic feet of the biosphere. It is a sad monument, indeed, to the excesses of modern society [Gore 151]. One might assume such a monstrous mound of garbage is the largest thing ever produced by human hands. Unhappily, this is not the case. The Fresh Kills Landfill, located on Staten Island, is the largest landfill in the world. It sports an elevation of 155 feet, an estimated mass of 100 million tons, and a volume of 2.9 billion cubic feet. In total acreage, it is equal to 16,000 baseball diamonds [Miller 526]. By the year 2005, when the landfill is projected to close, its elevation will reach 505 feet above sea level, making it the highest point along the Eastern Seaboard, Florida to Maine. At that height, the mound will constitute a hazard to air traffic at Newark airport [Rathje 3-4]. Fresh Kills (Kills is from the Dutch word for creek) was originally a tidal marsh. In 1948, New York City planner Robert Moses developed a highly praised project to deposit municipal garbage in the swamp until the level of the land was above sea level. A study of the area predicted the marsh would be filled by the year 1968. He then planned to develop the area, building houses and attracting light industry. Mayor Impelliteri issued a report titled "The Fresh Kills Landfill Project" in 1951. The report stated, in part, that the enterprise "cannot fail to affect constructively a wide area around it." The report ended by stating, "It is at once practical and idealistic" [Rathje 4]. One must appreciate the irony in the fact that Robert Moses was, in his day, considered a leading conservationist. His major accomplishments include asphalt parking lots throughout the New York metro area, paved roads in and out of city parks, and development of Jones Beach, now the most polluted, dirty, overcrowded piece of shoreline in the Northeast. In Stewart Udall's book The Quiet Crisis, the former Secretary of the Interior lavishes praise on Moses. The JFK cabinet member calls Jones Beach "an imaginative solution ... (the) supreme answer to the ever-present problems of overcrowding" [Udall 163-4]. JFK's introduction to the book provides this foreboding passage: "Each generation must deal anew with the raiders, with the scramble to use public resources for private profit, and

Arabic Literature

Arabic literature Main article:  Arabic literature Main article:  Literature of Morocco Ibn Tufail  (Abubacer) and  Ibn al-Nafis  were pioneers of the  philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic  novel  Hayy ibn Yaqdhan  (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to  al-Ghazali's  The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel  Theologus Autodidactus  as a response to Ibn Tufail's  Philosophus Autodidactus.Both of these narratives had  protagonists(Hayy in  Philosophus Autodidactus  and Kamil in  Theologus Autodidactus) who were  autodidactic  feral children  living in seclusion on adesert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in  Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in  Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earlies t known  coming of age  plot and eventually becoming the first example of a  science fictionnovel. 17][18] Theologus Autodidactus, written by the  Arabian  polymath  Ibn al-Nafis  (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as  spontaneous generation,  futurology, the  end of the world and doomsday,resurrection, and the  afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the  scientific knowledge  of  biology,  astronomy,  cosmology  and  geology  known in his time.His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain  Islamic  religious teachings in terms of  science  and  philosophy  through the use of fiction. [19] A  Latin  translation of Ibn Tufail's work,  Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by  Edward Pococke   the Younger, followed by an English translation by  Simon Ockley  in 1708, as well as  German  and  Dutch  translations. These translations later inspired  Daniel Defoe  to write  Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the  first novel in English. 20][21][22][23]  Philosophus Autodidactus  also inspired  Robert Boyle  to write his own philosophical novel set on an island,  The Aspiring Naturalist. [24]  The story also anticipatedRousseau's  Emile: or, On Education  in some ways, and is also similar to  Mowgli's story in  Rudyard Kipling's  The Jungle Book  as well as  Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother  wolf. [citation needed] Among other innovations in Arabic literature was  Ibn Khaldun's perspective on chronicling past events—by fully rejecting supernatural explanations, Khaldun essentially invented the scientific or sociological approach to history. citation needed] Islam [100 A. D. to 1 500] 1. God's revelations were first received around 610 by the prophet Muhammad, whose followers later collected them into the Koran, which became the basis for a new religion and community known today as Islam. 2. Though most of the pre-Islamic literature of Arabia was written in verse, prose became a popular vehicle for the dissemination of religious learning. 3. As its title â€Å"the Recitation† suggests, the Koran was made to be heard and recited; because it is literally the word of God, Muslims do not accept the Koran in translation from Arabic. . Although Persian literature borrowed from Arabic literary styles, it also created and enhanced new poetic styles, including the  ruba'i  (quatrain),  ghazal  (erotic lyric), and  masnavi  (narrative poem). 5. More widely known than any other work in Arabic, the  Thousand and One Nights  is generally excluded from the canon of classical Arabic literature due to its extravagant and improbable fabrications in pro se, a form that was expected to be more serious and substantial than verse. Thousand and One Nights Myths and Legends of the World |  2001 |  Copyright Thousand and One NightsThousand and One Nights,  also called  The Arabian Nights' Entertainment  or simply  The Arabian Nights,  is a sprawling, centuries-old collection of tales. In the English-speaking world, it is the best-known work of Arabic stories. The framework of the collection is that a king named Shahriyar, distrustful of women, had the habit of taking a new wife every night and killing her the next day. A resourceful young woman named Shahrazad had a plan to end the deadly tradition. After marrying the king, she told him a story on their wedding night with the promise to finish it the next day. He let her live, and she repeated the trick.So captivating were her stories that Shahriyar spared her life again and again in order to hear the rest of the narrative. The origins of  Thousand and One Nights  are u nknown. The oldest bit of Arabic text dates from the 800s; the first lengthy text was written in the 1400s. None of the early Arabic-language texts contains exactly the same stories. Scholars have identified Persian, Baghdadian, and Egyptian elements in the work, which seems to have developed over the years as an ever-changing collection of fairy tales, romances, fables, poems, legends about heroes, and humorous stories.The stories that are best known in the English-speaking world—those of Sinbad the Sailor, Aladdin and his Magic Lamp, and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves—do not appear in all editions of  Thousand and One Nights. Thousand and One Nights The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. |  2012 |  Copyright Thousand and One Nights or Arabian Nights, series of anonymous stories in Arabic, considered as an entity to be among the classics of world literature. The cohesive plot device concerns the efforts of Scheherezade, or Sheherazade, to keep her husband, King Shah ryar (or Schriyar), from killing her by entertaining him with a tale a night for 1,001 nights.The best known of these stories are those of Ali Baba, Sinbad the Sailor, and Aladdin. Although many of the stories are set in India, their origins are unknown and have been the subject of intensive scholarly investigation. The corpus began to be collected about the year 1000. At first the title was merely indicative of a large number of stories; later editors dutifully provided editions with the requisite 1,001 tales. The present form of  Thousand and One Nights  is thought to be native to Persia or one of the Arabic-speaking countries, but includes stories from a number of different countries and no doubt reflects diverse source material.The first European edition was a free translation by Abbe Antoine Galland into French (1704–17). Most subsequent French, German, and English versions lean heavily upon Galland. Among the English translations include the expurgated edition of E. W. Lane (1840), with excellent and copious notes; the unexpurgated edition by Sir Richard Burton in 16 volumes (1885–88); that of John Payne in 9 volumes (1882–84); Powys Mathers's translation from the French text of J. C. Mardrus (rev. ed. , 4 vol. , 1937); and that of Husain Haddawy (2 vol. , 1990, 1995).Note: This file is also available as a  Word document. Acknowledgements: Al-Muntazir Madrasah, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. IMPORTANCE OF THE HOLY QUR’AAN The first lesson to be learned by all students is about the importance of the Holy Qur’aan. The Qur’aan is the Book of Allah  subhaanahu wa ta‘aalaa. Every word in the Qur’aan has come from Allah. That is why we say that it is a Holy Book. The words in the Qur’aan were sent by Allah to Prophet Muhammad  sallal-laahu ‘alayhi wa-aalihi wa sallam. The Prophet (s) received the words of Allah through angel Jibra’eel.This Qur’aan is a Holy Book t hat was not written by anyone but sent by Allah to Prophet Muhammad (s) through Jibra’eel. 1. It is the most truthful speech: Prophet Muhammad (s) regularly read the words of Allah to Muslims around him. These Muslims were very pleased and excited to receive the words of Allah. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  The most truthful speech, the most eloquent advice, and the greatest stories are in the Book of Allah. The Muslims listened carefully to what the Prophet read, memorized the sentences and passages of the Qur’aan, recited them regularly and followed the teachings of the Qur’aan.In order to preserve the words of Allah the Prophet appointed special people known as â€Å"Scribes of the Qur’aan† to write down the words of Allah. 2. It is in original language: Prophet Muhammad (s) was an Arab and the majority of people in Mecca and Medina spoke Arabic. Therefore the Qur’aan was sent in Arabic. Arabic is written from right to left. It is better to learn to read the Qur’aan in its original language. Therefore, we will put efforts to learn Qur’aan written in Arabic instead of simply reading its translation in other languages. . The Holy Qur’aan contains Allah’s message to all people. It tells people how to act correctly. It guides us to a correct way of life in this world. The Book of Allah also talks about life after death. It tells us that Allah has prepared Paradise for good people and Hell for bad people. The Qur’aan encourages the worship of only one God Who creates and provides for them. The Book forbids people from evil and condemns those who do wrong. It contains stories of the past Prophets and the examples of bad and good people.People are advised in the Qur’aan to be good to others and respect them. It teaches people to live in peace and harmony. 4. Qur’aan brings happiness in this world and the Hereafter. Following the Qur’aan brings happiness in this world and the world after death. The Prophet (s) said:If you desire the life of the fortunate, the death of a martyr, the salvation on the Day of Regret and the shade on the Day of Extreme Heat, then you should study the Qur’aan because it is the word of the Merciful, a sanctuary from Shaytaan and a causes the tilting of the Balance.In another Hadith we read that the Prophet (s) has said:  The recitor of the Qur’an will be spared from the calamities of the Hereafter. 5. It is the only Divine book that has remained unchanged. Allah sent the Qur’aan to His Prophet. A book sent by Allah to people is known as a Divine Book or a Heavenly Book. Other Divine Books were also sent to previous prophets. These are: Suhoof to Prophet Ibraheem  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœalayhis salaam; Zaboor to Prophet Dawood  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœalayhis salaam;  Tawraah to Prophet Moosaa  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœalayhis salaam; and  Injeel to Prophet ‘Eisaa  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœalayhis salaam.The difference between the Qur’aan an d past revealed books is that the Qur’aan is the only Divine Book that has remained unaltered. The Qur’aan we have with us contains exactly the same message that was sent to Prophet Muhammad by Allah through Jibra’eel. 6. Our supplications get answered  if we were to pray after reading the Holy Qur’aan. The Prophet (s) said:  One who starts the Qur’an and finishes it, Allah will grant him one answered supplication. It also helps in strengthening our faith. Imam Ali (a) said:  Ã‚  Reciting the Qur’an plants the eed of faith. 7. The Qur’aan is the best companion. It can be of great help when a child or adult is feeling lonely. Imam Ali Zaynul ‘Aabideen (a) said:  If all who live between the East and West perish, I will have no fear as long as I have the Qur’an with me. 8. Students get wise  when they start reading the Qur’aan in their childhood. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  Whoever reads the Qur’an before becoming Baaligh, has indeed been given wisdom as a child. The Holy Book is the best intellectual treasure a student can have.Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  The Qur’an is a wealth with which there is no poverty, and without which there is no wealth. On the other hand not caring to read and study the Qur’aan is a great loss. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  Surely the person in whose heart lacks the trace of the Qur’an is like a ruined house. 9. Muslims read the Qur’aan to understand the true teachings of Islam. Prophet Muhammad (s) left the Holy Book and the Ahlul Bayt (a) as the most important legacy for Muslims after him. He said:  I leave tow weighty things among you: The Book of Allah and my family – the Ahlul Bayt.Indeed these two will never separate until they reach me near the pool of Kawthar. 10. All Muslims recite some Soorahs in their prayers. However, it is good to memorize more Soorahs and read them in Salaat. Imam Muhammad Al-Baaq ir (a) said:  Whoever recites the Qur’aan while standing in his prayer, Allah will bestow on him a hundred blessings for every letter; and whoever recites it while sitting in his prayer, Allah will reward him fifty blessings for every letter; and whoever recites it outside of his prayer, Allah will grant him ten blessings for every letter. 1. The Qur’aan is a cure to mental and spiritual diseases: Imam Hasan al-‘Askaree (a) said:  The Messenger of Allah (s) said: I advice you to the Qur’aan since it is the beneficial cure, the blessed medicine, the protection (‘Isma) for he who holds fast to it, and the salvation for he who follows it. Neither does it cause crookedness so that it departs (from the truth) nor does it deviate so that it causes trouble. Its marvels do not come to end and the vastness of refutations does not wear it. RESPECT AND RIGHTS OF THE HOLY QUR’AANNow that we know that the Holy Qur’aan is not an ordinary book, bu t a Divine Book sent by Allah for the guidance of all people, we must show respect to it. Here are some of the points we need to remember. 1. A part of the Qur’aan carries the same respect as the entire Qur’aan. Allah says:  When the Qur’aan is recited, listen to  it (7:204). We know that when recitation takes place it is always of a part of the Qur’aan. Even then Allah uses the word Qur’aan for the part that is being recited. Therefore, if you have a Siparah, a binder or a booklet that contains Soorahs and passages from the Qur’aan, you treat it like a Qur’aan. . The Qur’aan should always be carried with proper care. When your Madrasah bag contains the Qur’aan, or a part of it, take extra care of the bag. Keep the bag slowly on the desk or floor instead of letting it fall on its own. Use both hands to remove the Qur’aan from your bag, kiss the cover of the Qur’aan, place it slowly on a desk (or on a wo oden carrier specially built for holding the Qur’aan) and open the pages gently. 3. When the Qur’aan is being recited, listen to it and be attentive (7:204). If you are busy with something else then at least do not disturb the recitation by talking, for example, or making noise.There is reward for listening to the Qur’aan. Imam Ali Zaynul ‘Aabideen (a) said:  Whoever listens to a letter of the book of Allah, the Glorious and Almighty, without even reading it, Allah will write down for him one good deed, forgive a sin, and raise him a degree. It was the practice of unbelievers in Mecca to make a lot of noise so that others could not listen to the Qur’aan (41:26). Do not be like them and instead lend your ears to the Qur’aan and give it respect. We often wish that God would talk to us. One way to achieve this is by reading the Qur’aan. Prophet Muhammad (s): said:  Lo!Whoever has longing for Allah should listen to the word of Allah! A lso, if you wish to talk to God then do Tilaawa. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  Whenever one of you would like to talk to his Lord, he should read the Qur’an. 4. The Qur’aan should be recited regularly. It is disrespect to keep the Holy Qur’aan unread. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  Brighten your homes with reciting Qur’aan; do not turn them into graves. Surely the house in which a lot of recitation takes place enjoys many blessings and the members benefit from it. Such a household shines for the inhabitants of Heaven as stars shine to the inhabitants of the earth.On the Day of Judgment the Prophet will complain to Allah about some Muslims who had abandoned the Qur’aan (25:30). Another Hadith of the Prophet (s) says:  Indeed hearts rust in the same way irons rust. He was asked: â€Å"What will polish the hearts? † The Prophet answered:  Reading the Qur’an. The more Qur’aan we read the better it is. We should discipline oursel ves to read a good portion of Qur’aan daily. Imam Ali (a) said:  He who recites 100 verses daily from the Book in the order it is in, Allah writes for him the reward equal to all the good actions of every one on this earth.Shaytaan would like us not to read, understand and study the Qur’aan. Let us fight him with all our strength and faith. Imam Ja‘far As-Saadiq (a) said:  Ã‚  There is nothing more unpleasant to Shaytaan than to see a man reading the Qur’an to gain insight. 5. Children should get familiarized with the Qur’aan early in their lives. Imam as-Saadiq (AS) said:  He who recites Qur’aan while he is young, Qur’aan mixes with his flesh and his blood, and Allah places him amongst the blessed and the chosen righteous. On the Day of Judgment, Qur’aan shall become his defender and  [pray for him a handsome reward. 6. It is the right and respect of the Qur’aan that it should be followed. Imam Ja‘far Saadi q (a) said:  Ã‚  Lo! One, who learns the Qur’aan, teaches it and practices according to it, I will guide and lead him to Paradise. 7. It is also the right and respect of the Qur’aan that those who have the knowledge of the Qur’aan should teach it to others. This is among the noblest acts. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:  The best of you is he who learns the Qur’an and teaches it. 8. Take the interpretations of the Qur’aan from the Holy Prophet (s) and the Imams from his family, i. e. the Ahlul Bayt (a).Imam Hasan al-‘Askaree quoting Prophet Muhammad said:  Recite it (i. e. the Qur’aan) as Allah gives you ten rewards for each letter that you recite from it. Then the Imam (a) said:  Do you know who really holds fast to it and reaches to such honor and reward? He is the person who takes Qur’aan and its interpretation from us Ahlul-Bayt (a) or from the deputies that we send to our followers, and takes its (interpretation) neither from the opinions of those who argue (on the speech of Allah) nor form the analogy  of  those who compare (different parts of the speech of Allah). . Once you have completed reading your lesson or referring to the Qur’aan then close it gently instead of leaving it open. 2. Do not put another book or any weight above the Qur’aan. The Holy Book should always be kept on the top in a pile of books. 3. It is Haraam (forbidden) to make Najaasaat (impure things like blood and urine) touch the Qur’aan. In the event where the Qur’aan becomes Najis, for instance if it falls in Najis water, it is Waajib (obligatory) to purify it (make it Taahir). 4. Old and worn out copies of the Qur’aan should be disposed in safe places.This includes sending them for recycling, burying them in the earth or casting in rivers. *  Ã‚  *  Ã‚  *  Ã‚  * * MANNERS OF RECITING THE HOLY QUR’AAN By now we know that the Qur’aan is a special book and deserves re spect. Now let us look at some of the manners of reciting the Qur’aan. It is the right of the Tilaawa (recitation of the Qur’aan) that we follow the rules when reciting the Qur’aan. 1. Perform Wudhoo before you prepare to read the Qur’aan. Allah says:  None can touch it (the Qur’aan) save the purified ones  (56:79). Once Imam Ja‘far As-Saadiq (a) asked his son Ismaa‘eel to read the Qur’aan. The latter said that he was not in Wudhoo.The Imam said in that case he could recite it but should not touch the writings of the Qur’aan. Therefore, it is advisable to  use a stick or pen to point to the words  or sentences of the Qur’aan you are reading if you are not in Wudhoo. 2. Read Du‘aa before Tilaawa. Reading of the Du‘aa helps to keep our focus and reminds us of what we need to take from the Holy Book. Ma‘soomeen (a) have recommended a number of Du‘aas. The Du‘aa taught by Imam Jaâ⠂¬Ëœfar As-Saadiq (a) appears in this booklet with Qur’aan lessons. 3. Always say  A‘oodhubillaahi minash shaytaanir rajeem  ( ) when you begin reading the Qur’aan. It means: I seek refuge in Allah from the cursed Shaytaan. This is what Allah instructs us to do in Aayah 16:98. 4. Next say  Bismillaahir rahmaanir raheem  ( )  The meaning of this phrase is: In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. Whenever Imam Moosaa Al-Kaazim (a) wished to make a point to Haroon Rasheed using Aayaat from the Qur’aan, the Imam would begin with  A‘oodhubillaah . . . followed by  Bismillaah . . . 5. Sit facing Qiblaah when reciting the Qur’aan. Please note that this is the best direction to face.However where it may be difficult or impossible to face Qiblaah when reading the Qur’aan (for example if your desk is facing another direction) then it is all right not to face the Qiblaah. 6. Recite the Qur’aan with Tarteel  as instructed by Allah in Aayah 73:4. This means that we should recite the Qur’aan in a good voice with rhythm instead of plain reading. 7. Recite the Qur’aan slowly  Allah said to the Prophet  do not move your tongue with it (Qur’aan) to make haste therein  (75:16). The aayaat of the Qur’aan should be recited in slow tones with each word being pronounced clearly.The Prophet (s) advised Muslims not be concerned about finishing a Soorah when reciting the Qur’aan. 8. Be Humble when reciting the Qur’aan. The Prophet (s) says that the best recitor is he who is humble when reciting the Qur’aan and realizes his own insignificance. Some people exhibit their insignificance and the awe of talking to Allah through weeping. This is a good sign. Prophet Muhammad (s) said:Eyes that weep when reciting the Qur’an will be shining with delight on the Day of Resurrection. 9. Try to understand the recitation. Holy Qur’aan is a book of Guidance (2:2).It is necessary for us to understand the message Allah sent all people through Prophet Muhammad (s). 10. Read from the Qur’aan by looking at the writings instead of reciting from your memory. In a Hadith from one of our Imams it is said that mere looking at the writings of the Qur’aan carries reward. 11. Interact with the Qur’aan. Imam Ja‘far As-Saadiq (a) says that it is important to react to the aayaat of the Qur’aan when reciting it. When we come across aayaat on Paradise, Mercy and Grace of Allah, Good Outcome in the hereafter, we should hope for these in our hearts.On the other hand if we are reading aayaat that warn us about the punishment, fire, Hell, etc. we should pray to be saved from these. 12. Open your heart and mind to the Qur’aan and ponder over what you read. Allah often invites us to think and ponder over the contents of the Qur’aan. In 47:24 Allah says:  Do they not then think deeply in the Qurâ⠂¬â„¢aan, or are their hearts locked up? 13. Perform Sajdah where required to do so  In the entire Qur’aan there are 15 places where performing of Sajdah is required. At 4 places it is Waajib (obligatory) to do Sajdah if we were to read or listen to these sections of the Qur’aan.For the rest of the places it is Mustahab (recommended) to do Sajdah. 14. Say  Sadqallaahul ‘Aliyyul ‘Azeem  ( ) every time you end a recitation of the Qur’aan. The meaning of this phrase is: Allah, the Sublime, the Great, is truthful in what He has said 15. Read one of the Du‘aas after Tilaawa. The Ma‘soomeen have taught a number of Du‘aas, from these two have been included with Qur’aan lessons. In these Du‘aas, amongst other things, we pray to the Almighty to enlighten us through the Qur’aan and make us follow the teachings of the Qur’aan. THE HOLY QURAN: Islam appeared in the form of a book: the Quran.Muslims, consider the Quran (sometimes spelled â€Å"Koran†) to be the Word of God as transmitted by the Angel Gabriel, in the Arabic language, through the Prophet Muhammad. The Muslim view, moreover, is that the Quran supersedes earlier revelations; it is regarded as their summation and completion. It is the final revelation, as Muhammad is regarded as the final prophet – ‘the Seal of the Prophets. † In a very real sense the Quran is the mentor of millions of Muslims, Arab and non-Arab alike; it shapes their everyday life, anchors them to a unique system of law, and inspires them by its guiding principles.Written in noble language, this Holy Text has done more than move multitudes to tears and ecstasy; it has also, for almost fourteen hundred years, illuminated the lives of Muslims with its eloquent message of uncompromising monotheism, human dignity, righteous living, individual responsibility, and social justice. For countless millions, consequently, it has been the singl e most important force in guiding their religious, social, and cultural lives. Indeed, the Quran is the cornerstone on which the edifice of Islamic civilization has been built.The text of the Quran was delivered orally by the Prophet Muhammad to his followers as it was revealed to him. The first verses were revealed to him in or about 610, and the last revelation dates from the last year of his life, 632. His followers at first committed the Quran to memory and then, as instructed by him, to writing. Although the entire contents of the Quran, the placement of its verses, and the arrangement of its chapters date back to the Prophet, as long as he lived he continued to receive revelations.Consequently, the Holy Text could only be collected as a single corpus – â€Å"between the two covers† – after the death of Muhammad. This is exactly what happened. After the battle of al-Yamamah in 633, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, later to become the second caliph, suggested to Abu Bakr, the first caliph, that because of the grievous loss of life in that battle, there was a very real danger of losing the Quran, enshrined as it was in the memories of the faithful and in uncollated fragments.Abu Bakr recognized the danger and entrusted the task of gathering the revelations to Zayd ibn Thabit, who as the chief scribe of the Prophet was the person to whom Muhammad frequently dictated the revelations in his lifetime. With great difficulty, the task was carried out and the first complete manuscript compiled from â€Å"bits of parchment, thin white stones – ostracae – leafless palm branches, and the memories of men. Later, during the time of ‘Uthman, the third caliph, a final, authorized text was prepared and completed in 651, and this has remained the text in use ever since. The contents of the Quran differ in substance and arrangement from the Old and New Testaments. Instead of presenting a straight historical narrative, as do the Gospels a nd the historical books of the Old Testament, the Quran treats, in allusive style, spiritual and practical as well as historical matters.The Quran is divided into 114 surahs, or chapters, and the surahs are conventionally assigned to two broad categories: those revealed at Mecca and those revealed at Medina. The surahs revealed at Mecca – at the beginning of Muhammad's mission – tend to be short and to stress, in highly moving language, the eternal themes of the unity of God, the necessity of faith, the punishment of those who stray from the right path, and the Last Judgment, when all man's actions and beliefs will be judged.The surahs revealed at Medina are longer, often deal in detail with specific legal, social, or political situations, and sometimes can only be properly understood with a full knowledge of the circumstances in which they were revealed All the surahs are divided into ayahs or verses and, for purposes of pedagogy and recitation, the Quran as a whole i s divided into thirty parts, which in turn are divided into short divisions of nearly equal length, to facilitate study and memorization. The surahs hemselves are of varying length, ranging from the longest, Surah 2, with 282 verses, to the shortest, Surahs 103, 108, and 110, each of which has only three. With some exceptions the surahs are arranged in the Quran in descending order of length, with the longest at the beginning and the shortest at the end. The major exception to this arrangement is the opening surah, â€Å"al-Fatihah,† which contains seven verses and which serves as an introduction to the entire revelation: In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. Praise be to God, Lord of the Worlds;The Merciful, the Compassionate; Master of the Day of Judgment; Thee only do we worship, and Thee alone we ask for help. Guide us in the straight path, The path of those whom Thou hast favored; not the path of those who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray. Non-M uslims are often struck by the range of styles found in the Quran. Passages of impassioned beauty are no less common than vigorous narratives. The sublime â€Å"Verse of the Throne† is perhaps one of the most famous: God – There is no god but He,   The Living. the Everlasting;Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep; To Him belongs all that is In the heavens and the earth; Who is there that can intercede with Him Save by His leave? He knows what lies before them And what is after them, Nor do they encompass anything of His knowledge Except such as He wills; His Throne extends over the heavens and earth; The preserving of them wearies Him not; He is the Most High, the All-Glorious. Muslims regard the Quran as untranslatable; the language in which it was revealed – Arabic – is inseparable from its message and Muslims everywhere, o matter what their native tongue, must learn Arabic to read the Sacred Book and to perform their worship. The Quran of course is a vailable in many languages, but these versions are regarded as interpretations rather than translations – partly because the Arabic language, extraordinarily concise and allusive, is impossible to translate in a mechanical, word-for-word way. The inimitability of the Quran has crystallized in the Muslim view of i'jaz or â€Å"impossibility,† which holds that the style of the Quran, being divine, cannot be imitated: any attempt to do so is doomed to failure.It must also be remembered that the Quran was originally transmitted orally to the faithful and that the Holy Text is not meant to be read only in silence. From the earliest days it has always been recited aloud or, more accurately, chanted. As a result, several traditional means of chanting, or intoning, the Quran were found side by side. These methods carefully preserved the elaborate science of reciting the Quran – with all its intonations and its cadence and punctuation.As the exact pronunciation was impor tant – and learning it took years – special schools were founded to be sure that no error would creep in as the traditional chanting methods were handed down. It is largely owing to the existence of these traditional methods of recitation that the text of the Quran was preserved without error. As the script in which the Quran was first written down indicated only the consonantal skeleton of the words, oral recitation was an essential element in the transmission of the text.Because the circumstances of each revelation were thought necessary to correct interpretation, the community, early in the history of Islam, concluded that it was imperative to gather as many traditions as possible about the life and actions of the Prophet so that the Quran might be more fully understood. These traditions not only provided the historical context for many of the surahs – thus contributing to their more exact explication – but also contained a wide variety of subsidiary i nformation on the practice, life, and legal rulings of the Prophet and his companions.This material became the basis for what is called the sunnah, or â€Å"practice† of the Prophet – the deeds, utterances, and taqrir (unspoken approval) of Muhammad. Together with the Quran, the sunnah, as embodied in the canonical collections of traditions, the hadith, became the basis for the shari'ah, the sacred law of Islam. Unlike Western legal systems, the shari'ah makes no distinction between religious and civil matters; it is the codification of God's Law, and it concerns itself with every aspect of social, political, economic, and religious life.Islamic law is thus different from any other legal system; it differs from canon law in that it is not administered by a church hierarchy; in Islam there is nothing that corresponds to a â€Å"church† in the Christian sense. Instead, there is the ummah – the community of the believers – whose cohesion is guaranteed by the sacred law. Every action of the pious Muslim, therefore, is determined by the Quran, by precedents set by the Prophet, and by the practice of the early community of Islam as enshrined in the shari'ah.No description, however, can fully capture the overwhelming importance of the Quran to Muslims. Objectively, it is the central fact of the Islamic faith, the Word of God, the final and complete revelation, the foundation and framework of Islamic law, and the source of Islamic thought, language, and action. It is the essence of Islam. Yet it is, in the deeply personal terms of a Muslim, something more as well. In innumerable, almost indescribable ways, it is also the central fact of Muslim life.To a degree almost incomprehensible in the West it shapes and colors broadly, specifically, and totally the thoughts, emotions, and values of the devout Muslim's life from birth to death. ARABIC LITERATURE: The Quran, the primary document of the Islamic faith, is the first Arabic book. Its style, at once vigorous, allusive, and concise, deeply influenced later compositions in Arabic, as it continues to color the mode of expression of native speakers of Arabic, Christian as well as Muslim, both in writing and in conversation. The Quran also largely determined the course of Arabic literature.The earliest Arabic prose came into being not from literary motives, but to serve religious and practical needs, above all the need to fully understand the Islamic revelation and the circumstances of the first Muslim community in the Hijaz. The sayings and actions of the Prophet and his Companions were collected and preserved, at first by memory and then by writing, to be finally collected and arranged by such men as al-Bukhari and Muslim in the ninth century. This material, the hadith, not only provided the basic texts from which Islamic law was elaborated, but also formed the raw material for historians of the early Muslim community.Since each hadith, or â€Å"saying,† is a first-person narrative, usually by an eyewitness of the event described, they have an immediacy and freshness that has come down unimpaired through the centuries. The personalities of the narrators – Abu Bakr, Umar, Aishah, and a host of others are just as vivid as the events described, for the style of each hadith is very personal. The hadith also determined the characteristic form of such works as Ibn Ishaq's Life of the Messenger of God, originally written in the middle of the eighth century.In this book, hadith dealing with the life of the Prophet are arranged in chronological order, and the comments of the author are kept to a minimum. Events are seen through the eyes of the people who witnessed them; three or four versions of the same event are often given, and in each case the â€Å"chain of transmission† of the hadith is given, so that the reader may judge its authenticity. During Umayyad times, a number of historians wrote monographs on specific historical, legal, and religious questions, and in each case these authors seem to have adhered to the hadith method of composition.Although few of the works of these writers have survived in their entirety, enough has been preserved by later incorporation in such vast works as the Annals of al-Tabari to give us an idea not only of their method of composition, but also of their wide-ranging interests. The practice of prefacing a chain of authorities to each hadith led to the compilation of vast biographical dictionaries, like the Book of Classes of the early ninth century author Ibn Said, which includes a biography of the Prophet and a great deal of information on notable personalities in Mecca and Medina during his lifetime.Works such as this allowed readers to identify and judge the veracity of transmitters of hadith; later, the content of biographical dictionaries was broadened to include poets, writers, eminent reciters of the Quran, scientists, and the like. These biographical dictionaries are often lively reading, and are a mine of information about social and political circumstances in the Islamic world. The spread of Islam naturally found chroniclers, such as al-Waqidi, who wrote in the late eighth and early ninth centuries, and al-Baladhuri, who composed his well known Book of the Conquests in the ninth century.These books, like the hadith, were written for practical motives. Al-Waqidi was interested in establishing the exact chronology of the spread of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula and adjoining areas, while al-Baladhuri was interested in legal and tax problems connected with the settlement of new lands. Their books nevertheless are classics of their kind and, aside from containing much interesting information, they have passages of great descriptive power.By the ninth century, the method of compiling history from hadith and carefully citing the authorities for each tradition – a process which had resulted in books of unwieldy length – was abandon ed by some authors, like al-Dinawari and al-Ya'qubi, who omitted the chains of transmitters and combined hadith to produce a narrative. The result was greater readability and smaller compass, at the sacrifice of richness and complexity. The works of al-Dinawari and al-Ya'qubi, unlike those of their predecessors, aimed to entertain as well as instruct; they are â€Å"literary† productions.This form of light history reached its apogee in the tenth century in al-Mas'udi's brilliant and entertaining Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems, a comprehensive encyclopedia of history, geography, and literature. The literary productions of these men would not, however, have been possible without the careful collections of historical hadith made by their predecessors. Just as the writing of history began from practical rather than literary motives, so the collection and preservation of Arabic poetry was undertaken by scholars with, at first, little interest in its artistic merit.The linguists and exegetes of Kufa and Basra began collecting this poetry in the eighth century because of the light it threw on unusual expressions and grammatical structures in the Quran and the hadith. Editions and commentaries were prepared of the poems of ‘Antarah, Imru al-Qays, and many others, and thus the works of the early poets were preserved for later generations. The Quran a part, poetry has always been considered the highest expression of literary art among the Arabs. Long before the coming of Islam, Bedouin poets had perfected the forms of panegyric, satire, and elegy.Their poetry obeys strict conventions, both in form and content, which indicates that it must have had a long period of development before it was finally committed to writing by scholars. The principal form used by the desert poets was the qasidah or ode, a poem of variable length rhyming in the last syllable of each line. The qasidah begins with a description of the abandoned encampment of the poet's beloved an d goes on to an account of his anguish at her absence and his consuming love for her. The poet then describes an arduous journey across the desert nd ends the qasidah with an appeal to the generosity of his host. Although the subject matter is almost invariable, the language is very complex and of great precision. In the Hijaz during the first century of Islam, contemporary with the first hadith scholars, a group of poets broke with the past and introduced new forms and subjects. Men like ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah wrote realistic and urbane verse, and a school of poetry which expressed the themes of Platonic love grew up around the poet Jamil ibn Muiammar, better known as Jamil al-‘Udhri.The lives and works of these poets of the Umayyad period are preserved in the entertaining tenth-century anthology by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, the Book of Songs. The Umayyad court in Damascus patronized poets and musicians. It was also the scene of the development of the type of Arabic lite rature called adab. Adab is usually translated as â€Å"belles-lettres,† which is slightly misleading. This literature, at least in its inception, was created to serve the practical end of educating the growing class of government ministers in the Arabic language, manners and deportment, history, and statecraft.Works in Sanskrit, Pahlavi, Greek, and Syriac began to find their way into Arabic at this time. ‘Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-Katib, an Umayyad official, and the creator of this genre, defined its aims as follows: â€Å"Cultivate the Arabic language so that you may speak correctly; develop a handsome script which will add luster to your writings; learn the poetry of the Arabs by heart; familiarize yourself with unusual ideas and expressions; read the history of the Arabs and the Persians, and remember their great deeds. ‘Abd Allah ibn al-Muqaffa', a contemporary of ‘Abd al-Ham id ibn Yahya, translated the history of the ancient kings of Persia into Arab ic, as well as Kalilah wa-Dimnah, an Indian book of advice for princes cast in the form of animal fables. His works are the earliest surviving examples of Arabic art prose and are still used as models in schools throughout the Middle East. By the ninth century, Arabic literature had entered its classical age. The various genres had been defined – adab, history, Quranic exegesis, geography, biography, poetry, satire, and many more.Al-Jahiz was perhaps the greatest stylist of the age, and one of the most original personalities. He wrote more than two hundred books, on every conceivable subject; he was critical, rational, and always amusing. His Book of Animals is the earliest Arabic treatise on zoology and contains very modern-sounding discussions of such things as animal mimetism and biological adaptation. He wrote one of the earliest and best treatises on rhetoric and a large number of amusing essays.By the time of his death at the age of ninety-six he had shown that Arabic p rose was capable of handling any subject with ease. The most gifted of al-Jahiz's contemporaries was probably Ibn Qutaybah, also a writer of encyclopedic learning and an excellent stylist. His Book of Knowledge, a history of the world beginning with the creation, is the earliest work of its kind and later had many imitators. The tenth century witnessed the creation of a new form in Arabic literature, the maqamat. This was the title of a work by al-Hamadhani, called Badi' al-Zaman, â€Å"The Wonder of the Age. His Maqamat (â€Å"Sessions†) is a series of episodes written in rhymed prose concerning the life of Abu al-Fath al-Iskandari, a sort of confidence trickster, who takes on a different personality in each story and always succeeds in bilking his victims. These stories are witty and packed with action, and were immediately popular. Al-Hamadhani was imitated by al-Hariri a hundred years later. Al-Hariri was a linguistic virtuoso, and his Maqamat is filled with obscure word s, alliteration, puns, and wild metaphors.He too was extremely popular, and many learned commentaries were written on his Maqamat. This purely Arab form can most closely be compared with the Spanish picaresque novels, which it may have influenced. Rhymed prose, which had come to be used even in government documents, was employed by Abu al-‘Ala al-Ma'arri in his Message of Forgiveness, one of the best known of Arabic prose works. Al-Ma'arri lived in the eleventh century, leading an ascetic life in his native Syrian village. Blind from the age of four, he possessed a prodigious memory and great intellectual curiosity and skepticism.The Message of Forgiveness is cast in the form of a journey to paradise; the narrator there interrogates the scholars and poets of the past regarding their lives and works, receiving surprising and often ironic responses. The book is an extended critique of literature and philology, and represents a high point of classical Arabic culture. One of the o ther great figures of late classical literature was the poet al-Mutanabbi, whose skill in handling the complex meters of Arabic poetry was probably unsurpassed.His verbal brilliance has always been admired by Arab critics, although it is difficult for those whose native tongue is not Arabic to appreciate it fully. The period between the fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258 and the nineteenth century is generally held to be a period of literary as well as political decline for the Arabs. It is true that during these five hundred years Arabic writers were more preoccupied with the preservation of their literary heritage than with the development of new forms and ideas.This is the age of encyclopedias, commentaries, and lexicons. Faced with the massive destruction of books by the invasions of Genghis Khan and Hulagu and later of Tamerlane, scholars compiled digests and abridgments of works that had survived in order to ensure their continued existence. There were also some original w orks, however. Ibn Battutah, the greatest traveler of the Middle Ages, lived in the fourteenth century, and his Travel provide a fascinating picture of the Muslim world, from the islands of the Indian Ocean to Timbuktu.Ibn Khaldun, like Ibn Battutah a native of North Africa, lived in the later fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries. His Prolegomena is a work of brilliance and originality; the author analyzes human society in terms of general sociological laws and gives a lucid account of the factors that contribute to the rise and decline of civilizations. Ibn Khaldun's style is innovative, simple, and very personal, and perfectly suited to the expression of his often difficult ideas.This post classical period also saw the composition of popular romances, such as the Romance of ‘Antar, based on the life of the famous pre-Islamic poet; the Romance of the Bani Hilal, a cycle of stories and poems based on the migration of an Arabian tribe to North Africa in the eleventh century ; and many more. These romances could be heard recited in coffee shops from Aleppoto Marrakesh until very recently. The most famous popular work of all, The Thousand and One Nights, assumed its present form during the fifteenth century.A revival of Arabic literature began in the nineteenth century, and coincided with the first efforts of Arabic speaking nations to assert their independence of Ottoman rule. Napoleon, during his brief occupation of Egypt in the late eighteenth century, introduced a printing press with fonts of Arabic type, and Muhammad ‘Ali, ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848, initiated a series of projects to modernize Egypt. He encouraged the use of Arabic in schools and government institutions, and established a printing press.Selected Egyptian students were sent to study in France, and on their return assigned to undertake translations of Western technical manuals on agriculture, engineering, mathematics, and military tactics. These works, together with many o f the classics of Arabic literature, were printed at the government press at Bulaq and had a profound impact on intellectuals in the Arab East. Another factor in the literary revival was the swift growth of journalism in Lebanon and Egypt. Starting in the late 1850s, newspapers were soon available through the Middle East.By 1900 well over a hundred and fifty newspapers and journals were being published. These journals had a great influence on the development and modernization of the written Arabic language; their stress on substance rather than style did much to simplify Arabic prose and bring it within the comprehension of everyone. One of the first leaders of the Arabic literary renaissance was the Lebanese writer and scholar Butrus al-Bustani, whose dictionary and encyclopedia awakened great interest in the problems of expressing modern Western ideas in the Arabic language.His nephew Sulayman translated Homer's Iliad into Arabic, thus making one of the first expressions of Wester n literature accessible to the Arabic-reading public. Other writers, such as the Egyptian Mustafa al-Manfaluti, adapted French romantic novels to the tastes of the Arab public, as well as writing elegant essays on a variety of themes. The historical novel, in the hands of Jurji Zaydan, proved immensely popular, perhaps because of the intense interest Arabs have always had in their past, and because of the novelty of a new form.But the first Arabic novel that can rank with European productions is Muhammad Husayn Haykal's Zaynab, set in Egypt and dealing with local problems. Perhaps the greatest figure in modern Arabic literature is Taha Husayn. Blind from an early age, Taha Husayn wrote movingly of his life and beloved Egypt in his autobiography, al-Ayyam, â€Å"The Days. † Taha Husayn was a graduate of both al-Azhar and the Sorbonne, and his voluminous writings on Arabic literature contributed a new critique of this vast subject.The novel was not the only new form introduced to the Arabic-reading public. The drama, first in the form of translations of Western work, then of original compositions, was pioneered by Ahmad Shawqi and came to maturity in the hands of Tawfiq al-Hakim. Tawfiq al-Hakim's long career and devotion to the theater did much to make this one of the liveliest arts of the Middle East. The history of modern Arabic poetry, with its many schools and contending styles, is almost impossible to summarize. Traditional forms and subjects were challenged by ‘Abbas Mahmud al-‘Aqqad,Mahmud Shukri, and Ibrahim al-Mazini, who strove to introduce nineteenth-century European themes and techniques into Arabic, not always with success. Lebanese poets were in the forefront of modernist verse, and one of them, Gibran Kahlil Gibran, proved very popular in the West. Poets are now experimenting with both old and new techniques, although discussions of form have given way to concern for content. The exodus of Palestinians from their native land ha s become a favorite theme, often movingly handled.In Saudi Arabia, it was not until well into the twentieth century that literary movements in neighboring lands made themselves felt. Poetry, of course, has been cultivated in Arabia since the pre-Islamic period, and it has lately been influenced by new forms and subjects. Hasan al-Qurashi, Tahir Zamakhshari, Hasan Faqi, and Mahrum (the pen name of Amir ‘Abd Allah al-Faysal) have won renown for their poetry throughout the Arab world. Hasan Faqi's poetry is introspective and philosophical, while the verse of the three others is lyrical and romantic.Ghazi al-Gosaibi is distinguished by a fresh, fecund imagination that expresses itself in both Arabic and English verse. Two novels by the late Hamid al-Damanhuri have been well received. They are Thaman al-Tadhiyah, â€Å"The Price of Sacrifice,† and Wa-Marrat al-Ayyam, â€Å"And the Days Went By. † With the rapid increase in education and communications, presses are now beginning to publish more and more works by writers, and it can certainly be expected that the great social changes that are taking place will eventually be reflected in equally far-reaching developments in the Arabic literature. Introduction â€Å"Read in the Name of your Lord†. [1] These were the first few words of the Qur'an revealed to the   Prophet Muhammad over 1400 years ago. Muhammad, who was known to have been in retreat and   meditation in a cave outside Mecca [2], had received the first few words of a book that would have a   tremendous impact on the world of Arabic literature. [3] Not being known to have composed any piece   of poetry and not having any special rhetorical gifts, [4] Muhammed had just received the beginning of a   book that would deal with matters of belief, legislation, international law, olitics, ritual, spirituality, and   economics [5] in an ‘entirely new literary form'. Armstrong states, â€Å"It is as though Muhammad had c reated an entirely new literary form†¦Without this experience of the   Koran, it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root. † [6] This unique literary form was the cause of the dramatic intellectual revival of desert Arabs [7], and after   thirteen years of the first revelation, it became the only reference for a new state in Medina. [8] This new   form of speech, the Qur'an, became the sole source of the new civilisation's political, philosophical,   and spiritual outlook.It is well known amongst Muslim and Non-Muslim scholars that the Qur’anic discourse cannot be   described as any of the known forms of Arabic speech; namely Poetry and Prose. [9] Taha Husayn, [10] a prominent Egyptian Litterateur, during the course of a public lecture summarised   how the Qur’an achieves this unique form: â€Å"But you know that the Qur’an is not prose and that it is not verse either. It is rather Qur’an, and it cannot   be called by any other name but this. It is not verse, and that is clear; for it does not bind itself to the   bonds of verse.And it is not prose, for it is bound by bonds peculiar to itself, not found elsewhere;   some of the binds are related to the endings of its verses and some to that musical sound which is all   its own. It is therefore neither verse nor prose, but it is â€Å"a Book whose verses have been perfected the   expounded, from One Who is Wise, All-Aware. † We cannot therefore say its prose, and its text itself is   not verse. It has been one of a kind, and nothing like it has ever preceded or followed it. † [11] Any expression of the Arabic language falls into the literary forms of Prose and Poetry.There are other   ‘sub’ forms that fall into the above categories. Kahin, which is a form of rhymed prose, is one of these   ‘sub’ forms; but all literary forms can be described as prose and poetry. Poetry Arabic Poetry is a form of metrical speech with a rhyme. [12] The rhyme in Arabic poetry is achieved by   every line of the poem ending upon a specific letter. [13] The metrical aspect of Arabic poetry is due to   its rhythmical divisions, these divisions are called ‘al-Bihar’, literally meaning ‘The Seas’ in Arabic. This term has been used to describe the rhythmical divisions as a result of the way the poem moves   according to its rhythm.In Arabic poetry there are sixteen rhythmical patterns, which all of Arabic poetry adheres too or is   loosely based upon; 1. at-Tawil 2. al-Bassit 3. al-Wafir 4. al-Kamil 5. ar-Rajs 6. al-Khafif 7. al-Hazaj 8. al-Muttakarib 9. al-Munsarih 10. al-Muktatab 11. al-Muktadarak 12. al-Madid 13. al-Mujtath 14. al-Ramel 15. al-Khabab 16. as-Saria' Each one of the al-Bihar have a unique rhythmical division. [14] The al-Bihar were first codified in the   8th century by al-Khalil bin Ahmad and have changed little since. The al-Bihar are based o n the length   of syllables.A short syllable is a consonant followed by a short vowel. A long syllable is a vowelled   letter followed by either an unvowelled consonant or a long vowel. A nunation sign at the end of a word   also makes the final syllable long. In Arabic poetry each line is divided into two halves. Below are basic scansions of the metres commonly found in Arabic poetry, showing long (—) and   short (^) syllables. They represent pairs of half-lines and should be read from left to right. The patterns   are not rigidly followed: two short syllables may be substituted for a long one. Tawil — — | ^ — — | ^ — — | ^ — — | ^ — — | ^ — — | ^ — — | ^ — — | Kamil ^ ^ — ^ — | ^ ^ — ^ — | ^ ^ — ^ — | ^ ^ — ^ — | ^ ^ — ^ — | ^ ^ — ^ — | Wafir ^ — ^ ^ — | ^ à ¢â‚¬â€ ^ ^ — | ^ — — | ^ — ^ ^ — | ^ — ^ ^ — | ^ — — | Rajaz — — ^ — | — — ^ — | — — ^ — | — — ^ — | — — ^ — | — — ^ — | Hazaj ^ — — — | ^ — — — | ^ — — — | ^ — — — | Basit — — ^ — | — ^ — | — — ^ — | — ^ — | — — ^ — | — ^ — | — — ^ — | — ^ — | Khafif — ^ — — | — — ^ — | — ^ — — | — ^ — — | — — ^ — | — ^ — — | Sari' — — ^ — | — — ^ — | — ^ — | — — ^ — | — — ^ â₠¬â€ | — ^ — | [For more details on the al-Bihar please see  www. theinimitablequran. om/TheRhythmicalPatterns. html ] An example of an Arabic poem, is the ancient Arabian poem called ‘Abu-l-‘Ata of Sind’: Of thee did I dream, while spears between us were quivering And sooth, of our blood full drop had drunken the tawny shafts! I know not, by heaven I swear, and true is the word I say This pang, is it love sickness, or wrought by a spell from thee. If it be a spell, then grant me grace of my love-longing If other the sickness be, then none is the guilt of thine. [15] This poem, in the original Arabic, falls into the rhythmical pattern of Tawil, one of the al-Bihar shown   above. 16] A literary analysis on any Arabic Poem will conclude that it adheres too or is based upon   the rhythmical patterns. This is supported by Louis Cheikho who collected pre-Islamic and Islamic   poetry and concluded that all of the poems conformed and were based upon the al-Bihar. [17] Prose Arabic Prose can be called non-metrical speech, meaning it does not have a rhythmical pattern like   poetry mentioned above. Arabic prose can be further divided into two categories; Saj’ which is rhymed   prose and Mursal which is straight prose or what some may call ‘normal speech’. [18] An apt description of Saj’ is, in the words of Von Deffer: A literary form with some emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, but distinct from poetry. Saj’ is not really as   sophisticated as poetry, but has been employed by Arab poets, and is the best known of the pre- Islamic Arab prosodies. It is distinct from poetry in its lack of metre, i. e. it has not consistent rhythmical   pattern, and it shares with poetry the element of rhyme, though in many cases some what irregularly   employed. † [19] Mursal can be defined as a literary form that goes on and is not divided, but is continued straight   throughout without any divisions, either of rhyme or of anything else. 20] Mursal is meant as a way of   expression close to the everyday spoken language, examples can be seen in speeches and prayers   intended to encourage or motivate the masses. The Qur’ans Literary Form The Qur’anic discourse cannot be described as any of the known literary forms. The most predominant   opinion is that it doesn’t adhere to any of the rules known to poetry and prose. Another opinion is that   the Qur’an combines metrical and non-metrical composition to create its own literary form. Some   scholars disagree with the above opinions and claim that the Qur’an is a form of rhymed prose, saj’.This opinion has arisen mainly due to the similarities of pre-Islamic prose and early Meccan chapters   of the Qur’an. However, the scholars who carry this opinion do not contend that the Qur’an is unique by   its use of literary and stylistic elements that render it inimitable. This unique use of literary elements   has not been found in any Arabic Prose, past or present. Below is an explanation, with reference to the main opinions above, on how the Qur’an achieves its   unique inimitable form. Non-compliance to the Rules of Prose or PoetryThe Qur’anic literary form differs as it does not fit in to any of the literary categories explained above,   [21] it is not like the prose of Saj’ or Mursal and it doesn't fit into any of the al-Bihar. This can be seen by   the following example: Wad Duha wal laili idha saja Ma waddaka Rabbuka wa maa qala Wa lal akhiraatu khairul laka minal oola Wa la sawfa ya teeka Rabbuka fa tarda†¦ By the morning hours and by the night most still Your Lord has neither forsaken you nor hates you And indeed the hereafter is better for you than the present And verily your Lord will give you so that you shall be well pleased†¦ [22]The examination of the whole chapter with reference to the above lit erary forms indicates that it is not   Saj’ or Mursal as this verse has an internal rhythm, whereas Saj’ does not have a consistent rhythm   and Mursal has no rhythm or rhyme. Also it cannot be described as poetry; the totality of this chapter, or   any other chapter for that matter, does not adhere to any of the al-Bihar. Unique Fusion of Metrical and non-Metrical Speech Some parts of the Qur’an follow the rules of poetry, that is, some verses can be described as one of   the al-Bihar. 23] When the totality of a Qur’anic Chapter, that contains some these verses is analysed,   it is not possible to distinguish its literary form. â€Å"The Qur'an is not verse, but it is rhythmic. The rhythm of some verses resemble the regularity of saj’ †¦But it was recognized by Quraysh critics to belong to neither one nor the other category. † [24] The Qur’an achieves this unique literary form by intermingling metrical and non-Metrical speech in   such a way that the difference can not be perceived. [25] This intermingling of metrical and non- metrical composition is present throughout the whole of the Qur’an.The following examples illustrate   this, â€Å"But the righteous will be in Gardens with Springs – ‘Enter in Peace and Safety! ’ – and We shall   remove any bitterness from their hearts: [they will be like] brothers, sitting on couches, face to face. No   weariness will ever touch them there, nor will they ever be expelled. [Prophet] tell My servants that I am   the Forgiving, the Merciful, but My torment is the truly painful one. Tell them too about Abraham’s   guests: when they came to him and said â€Å"Peace,† he said, ‘We are afraid of you’† [26]When reading the original Arabic of the above verse the reader moves from metric composition to   prose with out experiencing the slightest change of style or mode. [27] The same mingling of metrical   and non-metrical composition

“The Street” by Ann Petry Essay

In this novel, The Street by Ann Petry, tells just how hard life can be on the streets of Harlem. Reading Petry’s Novel, I mentally put myself in the shoes of, Lutie Johnson. Lutie is an African American woman who is also a single mother. Lutie tries her best to provide the best life she can for her and her son, Bub. Lutie experiences racism in the novel, and also discrimination and sexism. To get the life that she wants for herself and for Bub, Lutie must make some very hard decisions. This book took me through all the hard work and steps that Lutie must make and go through to make her and her son’s life better. This novel begins in November 1944, a cold and windy day in New York City. Petry glorifies the tendency for human independence by developing a plot in which she has to provide for her and her son all by herself, she is put threw racism, sexism, and hardship. The Street is a classic example of Petry’s naturalistic talent. Petry illuminates the anger, frustration, and resignation felt by Negroes during World War II. The story is written in the third person omniscient point of view. Although Lutie is the main character in the novel, Petry provides powerful insight into the lives of Bub, Min, Jones, Mrs. Hedges, and Boots. Each character’s point of view weaves together with the others to better show what a devastating impact racism, poverty, and gender had during that timeframe. The adult male characters in the story show what little respect they hold for women. They see the women as little more than sex objects. The women in the story show how their past experiences and current circumstances makes it virtually impossible for a black woman to ever achieve anything more than what they have managed to achieve thus far. In our society of today, there are many images that are portrayed through media and through personal experience that speak to the issues of black motherhood, marriage and the black family. Wherever one turns, there is the image of the black woman in the projects and very rarely the image of successful black women. Even when these positive images are portrayed, it is almost in a manner that speaks to the supposed inferiority of black women. Women, black women in particular, are placed into a society that marginalizes and controls many of the aspects of a black woman’s life. Therefore, many black women do not see a source of opportunity, a way to escape the statistics of their everyday existence. For example, if I were to ask a black mother if she would change her situation if it became possible to do so, some women would change, but others would say that it is not possible; This answer would be the result of living in a society that has conditioned black women to accept their lots in lives instead of fighting against the system. A lot of women today fall victim to system and actually content with that life style. If more women had the amount of determination that Lutie Johnson had it would defenliaty be a lot more successful black women in today’s society. The reason I chose Ann Petry, novel; was because the message that she is sending is real, granted this novel was written in the 1940s, the same experiences that she had to face, black women are still dealing with them today. The only differences are the black women in today’s society lack the drive and determination of Lutie. I personally see young black females go though the same issues, but now days they are looking for the easy way out. Which would more than likely be, Mrs. Hedges, a older lady in Lutie apartment building who runs a little whore house. â€Å"If you live on this damn street you’re supposed to want to earn a little extra money sleeping around nights. With nice white gentlemen.† Chapter 3, Pg 86 So in order to make a long story short, Ann Petry novel Street, portrays, realism The tendency to view or represent things as they really are. The meaning of realism and the novel goes hand and hand. The novel was very much straight forward; or maybe it was just easy to understand the struggle that Lutie was in counting, is the same thing a lot of females that I know personally got though every day. That moment when you can read something or see something, and it makes you remember; that just when you think that you have it bad, it always someone who has it even worst. In Lutie case no matter how hard she tries to get her head above water, it always something to drag her rite back down. So I say that to say this, â€Å"you never know the hand that you being dealt, but you have to play to win.†

era of 1936 essays

era of 1936 essays Today was such a great day. It was my mothers birthday and so many interesting things have happened in the newspaper. I really never read a newspaper, but for some reason I was hooked on it right when I bought it. Well to start out my great day, I got up early to bake a cake for my mother. I already had flour, yeast, vanilla, milk, and salt but I still needed eggs, sugar, and butter. Well I got on my shoes and walked down the block to the Food store to get the rest of the ingredients. I wanted to get the items fast so that I could go back home and make the cake to surprise my mom. I got butter which was 37 cents a pound, cane sugar for 49 cents a pound, large eggs for 25 cents a dozen, and a New York Times newspaper for 2 cents( New York Times 1936, page 1 ). I was surprised to see that all my items were on sale. I then went home and made the cake. While the cake was baking, I started to look at the newspaper. The first thing that caught my eye was on the front page. In big bold letters it said Roosevelt and the New Deal. This article caught my eye because I had no idea what the New Deal was. The article was about how Roosevelt made up the Works Progress Administration(Times 1 ) which gives unemployed people jobs. Well, the article went on about how it will provide eight million people with jobs(Times 2 ). I was so excited to hear about this because my father lost his job during the Great Depression. I hope this Works Progress Administration works so my dad can get back on his feet and work again. As I was thinking about the possibility of my dad getting a new job, an article about the Chicago Cubs caught my attention. Although the Cubs are my dads favorite team I am a Yankees fan. I mean, the Cubs are alright, but no one can stop Babe Ruth or any of the other Yankees. Anyway, the article was about how the Cubs beat the Cardinals 4-3 (Tim ...

Leadership in HKSAR essays

Leadership in HKSAR essays Leadership is important to every organization because it is very difficult to success without a good leader. So, many scholars write about leadership and organizational management. Edgar Schein is one of the most famous experts in this field. According to the article  ¡Leadership and Organizational Culture ¡ written by Schein (1996), leaders should be able to create, build, maintain and change organizations. His ideas would be discussed in the following paragraphs. Also, the case of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) would be applied to the discussion and HKSAR Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa ¡s performance would be considered. Firstly, Schein thinks that leaders can create organizations. They are taking the role of animator in the stage. Successful leaders should have vision, that means they can foresee the future. Apart from vision, it is very important for leaders to have energy to create the organizations. They would try one approach after another, despite facing repeated failure. This energy often comes from the leaders ¡ strong personal beliefs. More importantly, leaders can transmit energy this energy to their subordinates. Considering the case of the HKSAR, the Chief Executive Mr. Tung Chee-hwa, as a leader of the government, can be regarded as having enough vision. Every time Mr. Tung delivering his policy addresses, he has new fundamental policy like the promise of building 85,000 housing units per year, promoting Information Technology (IT) and Cyberport, environmental protection and building Disneyland theme park. We can see that Mr. Tung is in fact having vision and wants to make Hong Kong more competitive. In addition to vision, Mr. Tung does have energy. Mr. Tung faced financial trouble when he was working in his family shipping firm in the early 1980s, but he was able to help the firm sail through the recession. He faced similar situation when the Asian financial crises happened in 1998 and he ...

87 Advanced Business Writing Tips [That Actually Work]

87 Advanced Business Writing Tips [That Actually Work] I'm excited to share these top87 business writing tips with you. They were honed while I studied English Literature and Rhetoric, taught writing at the university level, and workedwith thousands of individuals and hundreds of companies to help people write better at work. Many of these tips come directly from our award winning online business writing courses. My hope is these tips help you enjoy writing, better communicate at work, get ahead in your career, and grow your business! Jump to a section This is a huge list with 87 of the best business writing tips. Use these links to jump to a section: PLANNING AND PROCESS TIPSFORMATTING TIPSLANGUAGE TIPSEDITING TIPSGRAMMAR TIPSBUSINESS WRITING TOOLSINFOGRAPHIC 1. Know Your AudienceBusiness writing is all about your reader. Your reader is your focus point, not what you know. 2.Prime Questions Before you write anything, ask yourself these two questions:1) Who is my reader?2) What do I want this reader to know or do?If you can’t answer these two questions, stop. Don’t write the document because it has no purpose. PLANNING AND PROCESS 3.Think FirstBusiness writing is just as much about thinking as it is about writing. 4.Most Time is PlanningYou should spend approximately 50% of your time planning a business document or email. 5. Drafting is EasyDrafting a document is the easiest part and should require approximately 20% of your time. 6. Editing TimeAllocate 30% of your time to editing. 7. Plan First, Then DraftAccept that you want to draft more than you want to plan a document or email. Everyone does. Drafting gives us a (sometimes false) sense of accomplishment. And, drafting is easier than planning. 8. Woody Allen is Right about WritingWoody Allen calls the planning portion of writing the â€Å"pace the floor† part. If you are an analytical thinker, which many business writers are, this is natural for you, but accept that sometimes it makes your brain hurt as your mind has to figure out all the interconnections. 9. Concept Maps are Essential for Business WritersMapping the structure of a complex document will make both planning and drafting much easier. 10. Develop HeadingsWhen you plan your documents, write a heading for each main section of your document. Don’t worry about the wording of the heading as you are planning to document, but verify that you can encapsulate the content of that section into a heading. If you can’t, your content is murky so fix it now before you waste time trying to edit the language when the real problem is disorganization. 11. Start Where It's EasiestYou don’t have to begin writing a document or email at the first sentence. The first sentence is often the hardest sentence to write. Instead, look at your document headings and write the section that is easiest or most interesting for you. Once you begin writing, the interconnectivity of thoughts will ignite, and the rest of the document will be easier to write. 12. How to Jump in and OutIn real life, business writers don’t have the luxury of a half-day of uninterrupted writing time. To maximize your efficiency, refer to the map or outline you created, decide which section you can tackle in the time you have and start drafting. Having a map and headings will prevent you from having to re-engage your thinking all over again each time you exit and enter the document. 13. Back Up When You Get StuckThe best recommendation given to meduring my years of rhetorical studies was: â€Å"The secret of writing is knowing when to back up. Don’t try to edit and polish before something is fully drafted. Don’t try to draft before your thoughts are clear. When you get stuck, back up!† As a business writer, this has saved me lots of frustration. 14. Hire a CoachHire a business writing coach and receive personalized feedback. One-on-one sessions will help you gain confidence in your writing. FORMAT TIPS 15. Paragraphs Seven Lines or Less Online In email or other documents that will be read online, be certain your paragraphs aren’t longer than seven lines. (Lines, not sentences.) Any longer than that and readability studies show that your readers just see a big block of text and jump over it. 16. Dangling Expressions are Funny but Avoid Them Dangling expressions commonly creep in documents in bullets and when copying and pasting. Example:David Corcoran wrote the project plan while traveling to Atlanta on the back of an envelope.(Who knew one could travel on an envelope?) hbspt.cta._relativeUrls=true;hbspt.cta.load(41482, 'bf4ee473-8e6b-46bf-b9e3-368d74d60b44', {}); 17. Use Regular Words to Avoid Non-Sexist WritingAvoid awkward non-sexist constructions like his/her and s/he. Instead, write out the actual words - his or her. 18. Headings Will Allow Your Readers to Scan EasilyUsing headings in email to highlight the organization will allow readers to scan the email more efficiently. 19. Make it Easy for Your Reader to ScanAdd white space to your documents by usingnumbered and bulleted lists. 20. Use Format to Indicate HierarchyIndent paragraphs to visually indicate it is a subset of the information above. LANGUAGEBEST PRACTICE TIPS 21. Write to Express, Not to ImpressIn business writing, your goal is to easily transmit ideas and information, not to flaunt a big vocabulary. 22. ConciseWriting is Skilled WritingConcisewritingis harder to craft thanwriting that has no length limit. Blaise Pasqual stated, "I apologize for the length of my letter. I did not have time to make it shorter." 23. Use Short WordsI’ve long admired Richard Lederer’s writing on language. In his 1991 book, The Miracle of Language, Lederer sings the praises of the short word: When you speak and write, there is no law that says you have to use big words. Short words are as good as long ones, and short, old words- like sun and grass and home- are best of all. A lot of small words, more than you might think, can meet your needs with a strength, grace, and charm that large words do not have. Two tips on clarity I always highlight in ourbusiness writing courses: Never use a big word when a small word will do. Any time a word is not truly needed, cut it. 24. Use Staccato Short Words to Grab AttentionTo grab your reader’s attention at pivotal moments in a document, such as the recommendation or conclusion, deliberately shift one or two sentences to all single-syllable words. A break in varied syllable length has the same effect on reading a document that staccato notes have when listening to music. The short, staccato words subconsciously alert your reader that something has shifted, causing them to pay more attention. 25. Winston Churchill WisdomWinston Churchill wisely stated, â€Å"Big men use little words, and little men use big words.† 26.Verbs = Energy Verbs are the pivot point of a sentence. Strong verbs have real punch. Compare: The famous strong verb example by Julius Caesar: â€Å"Veni, vidi, vici.† I came, I saw, I conquered. Business-speak: I was in attendance, and I conducted a review of the situation and culture, and I made recommendations for acquisition. 27. Use PreciseVerbsTo bring clarity to your writing, use preciseand evocative verbs. Business writers tend to muddle verbs because imprecise verb use is so common in business writing that it sounds normal to our ears. 28. Don't Smother VerbsA common clarity problem in business writing is â€Å"smothered verbs,† which are verbs that were changed to nouns (called â€Å"nominalization†). For example, the verb decide is nominalized into the noun decision. These nominalized verbs require helping words around them that smother their impact, muddle the clarity of a sentence, and increase sentence length. 29. Verbs Used Right Bring ClarityEnhance clarityby using a specific verb, instead of a smothered nominalized word.Example:The core verb in this sentence is â€Å"decide:"We need to make a decision about hiring either Kevin or Kira. - smothered verbWe need to decide about hiring either Kevin or Kira. - unsmothered verb 30. How to Cut 20% - 25% of BloatCutting smothered verbs reduces document length by 20-25% in most business documents. None of the smothering words have any value. Unsmothering verbs is a very powerful clarity technique. 31. "Take" Near a Verb is SmotheredWatch out for the word take near the verb in a sentence or sentence clause. If take is next to a verb or nominalized verb phrase, it is smothered. Example:We need to take the data findings into consideration if we expand the product line.We need to consider the data findings if we expand the product line. 32. "Give" Near a Verb is SmotheredWatch out for the wordgive near the verb in a sentence or sentence clause. If give is next to a verb or nominalized verb phrase, it is smothered. Example:Let me give consideration to your muddled writing. Let me consider your muddled writing. 33. "Have" Near a Verb is SmotheredWatch out for the word have near the verb in a sentence or sentence clause. If have is next to a verb or nominalized verb phrase, it is smothered. Example:I have a suspicion some of your verbs are smothered.I suspect some of your verbs are smothered. 34. "Make" Near a Verb is SmotheredWatch out for the word make near the verb in a sentence or sentence clause. If make is next to a verb or nominalized verb phrase, it is smothered. Example:We promise to make an adjustment to your account by tomorrow.We promise to adjust your account by tomorrow. 35. "Conduct" Near a Verb is SmotheredWatch out for the word conduct near the verb in a sentence or sentence clause. If conduct is next to a verb or nominalized verb phrase, it is smothered. Example:We’ll need to conduct a review of the data before the decision can be made.We’ll need to review the data before deciding. (Two smothered verbs corrected.) 36. "Come" Near a Verb is SmotheredWatch out for the word come near the verb in a sentence or sentence clause. If come is next to a verb or nominalized verb phrase, it is smothered. Example:We came to the conclusion that prices had to increase.We concluded that prices had to increase. 37. ":Are we in agreement that clarity matters?Do we agree that clarity matters?Extend an invitation to Karen and Sunita.Invite Karen and Sunita. 38. Avoid Wimpy VerbsAvoid wimpy verbs that need a helping word to enable the verb to do its job in the sentence. Example:Dolores walked into the room slowly and quietly with her head averted, hoping no one would notice she was late.Dolores slinked into the room, hoping no one would notice she was late. Evan planned and worked on the technical aspect of the project plan.Evan engineered the project plan. 39. Avoid RedundancyAvoid redundant verb modifiers.Example:Damian shouted loudly at Clarrisa after she missed the deadline. Damian shouted at Clarrisa after she missed the deadline. (Shouting, by definition, is loud, so no modifier is needed.) 40. Don't Start Sentences with "There is" or "There are."Weak sentences frequently start with â€Å"There is† or â€Å"There are.† Instead, cut to the chase. Find the real subject and start there.Example: There was a strong disagreement between the divisions about the reorganization structure.The two sides strongly disagreed about the reorganization structure. 41. Active Voice is Better than Passive VoiceActive voice is more dynamic and lively than passive voice, typically. 42. Use Reader:We have decided to upgrade the features of our training course.You will automatically receive updated features in your training course. 43. Avoid JargonJason Fried, the CEO of 37 Signals, stated: â€Å"Jargon is insecurity.† I agree. So often, I hear people within an organization parrot each other with phrases that have been used so much they have become meaningless. Examples: Lots of moving parts Give 110% Synergy Think outside the box Tiger team View more jargon examples to avoid Bonus Tip: You can also use our free Jargon Grader to check your writing for over 700 jargon words and phrases. 44. Be Polite. It Echoes.Everything we write at work has a larger echo. This echo is both a worry and an opportunity to advance your career. For example, you may have to deny a funding request to present research at a conference, but the larger echo requirement is maintaining the drive to innovate and research at your company. Don't win a battle and lose the war. 45. Own Your WorkAvoid â€Å"I think†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or â€Å"I suggest†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or â€Å"I wonder if we should†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Instead, confidently write â€Å"I recommend...† or omit the â€Å"I† lead statement and simply write â€Å"Merge the divisions.† 46. Use Standard Grammar, Even When ChallengingSubjects and verbs need to agree in number. In an attempt be non-sexist, some business writers recommend writing, â€Å"Each person did their work quietly.† Each is singular. Their is plural. It’s grammatically incorrect. 47. How to Dodge Awkward His or Her DilemmaTo dodge the awkward his or her dilemma, shift the subject to plural when possible:A manager is trained to support his or her employees.Managers are trained to support their employees. 48. The Right Amount of InformationHelps the Reader and WriterA little extra information provided can resolve repeated questions:As noted on page four of the instruction booklet, photocopying on both sides requires two steps. 49. Equal Respect MattersUse consistency naming people. Mr. Jones and Arlene Kelly should be referred to consistently as David Jones and Arlene Kelly or as Mr. Jones and Ms. Kelly. 50. Avoid ExclusionaryWordsUse neutral job titles that do not imply gender - chairperson, not chairman or chairwoman. 51. Confident Tone TipTo instill a confident tone to your writing, shorten your sentences and avoid the common overuse ofâ€Å", and† in sentences. Which statement sounds more confident to you?Training with us is easy, and you can hand us the job and just walk away. You won't worry about a thing, and you can get back to what you do best. Relax knowing your project is moving seamlessly to completion, and you can simply calculate the savings.ORTraining with us is easy. Hand us the job and just walk away. You won't worry about a thing. Get back to what you do best. Relax knowing your project is moving seamlessly to completion. Simply calculate the savings. Do you hear the difference in confident tone? The second statement sounds much less out-of-breath or desperate to please and more confident and competent. It is calmer and assuring. 52. Take A CourseContinue to hone your skills by taking an effectivebusiness writing course. A structured course can help you develop effective business writing techniques [Learn More]. BUSINESS WRITING TIPS FOR EDITING YOURWORK 53. An Exclamation Point is Already SuperlativeNever use more than one exclamation point at the end ofa sentence. When I studied rhetoric in graduate school, my favorite professor shared this funny statement about using too many exclamation points in general.â€Å"Too many exclamation points make a document feel as if it has been written by an unfocused over-caffeinated cheerleader.† 54. Use Clear Words Rather thanEmphasis PunctuationExclamation points are often used in business writing to generate enthusiasm when the real problem is imprecise information. More accurate, clear information will generate reader engagement far better than trying to spice a murky document with exclamation points. 55. Editing First StepThe first step in editing is verifying that content matches reader needs - not too much, and not too little. 56. Editing SecondStepThe second step in editing is making sure the document is as easy to scan as possible. Add headings, bullet lists, appropriate bold text, and lots of white space. 57. Editing ThirdStepThe third step in editing is correcting grammar, sentence structure, and eliminating bloat. 58. Break Paragraphs FrequentlyEverynew thought needs a new paragraph. When in doubt, break the paragraph. 59. Paragraph Length is VariedA one-sentence paragraph is both correct and emphatic. Don't be afraid to write a one-sentence paragraph. 60. Designate an Editor for Group DocumentsWhen a group writes a document, designate one writer as the final editor to ensure a coherent voice. 61. Planning Eases EditingIf you are spending too much time editing, you probably rushed theplanning of yourdocument. 62. Editing Can'tCompensate for Poor PlanningEditing should need a dusting, not an editorial massacre. 63. How to Proofread a Colleague's DocumentIf a colleague asks you to edit their document, you must ask them about both the purpose of the document and about the audience. Without this information, you can only clean grammar. 64. PunctuationMattersA woman without her man is nothing.A woman: without her, man is nothing. GRAMMAR TIPS AND TRICKS FOR BUSINESS WRITING 65. #1 Most Common Business Grammar ErrorThe most common grammar error we see in client writing during business writing training is fused or run-on sentences. 66. #2 Most Common Business Grammar ErrorThe second most common grammar error we see in client writing is sentence fragments. 67. #3 Most Common Business Grammar ErrorThe third most common grammar error we see in client writing is hyphen errors. 68. #4 Most Common Business Grammar ErrorThe fourth most common grammar error we see in client writing is me, myself, and I errors. 69. #5 Most Common Business Grammar ErrorThe fifth most common grammar error we see in client writing is introductory clause comma errors. 70. Grammar Errors are IndividualEveryone makes different grammar errors. Therefore, to improve grammar, the first step has to be an accurate diagnosis of an individual’s entrenched grammar errors. 71. Wide-Ranging Grammar Training Won't HelpA review of many grammar rules is ineffective in actually improving business writing sentence structure. More effective is focusing on what is incorrect. 72. Best Grammar ResourceBy far, the best grammar resource on the Internet is Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab. It includes explanation and exercises. 73. Best Grammar AnalysisGrammar Girl is an excellent resource for current grammar use and rationale. 74. Best Business Grammar ResourceInstructional Solutions’ Business Grammar category in their Business Writing Info blog is an excellent resource for business-specific grammar use. 75. Oxford Comma Yes or NoGrammarians will never agree about whether or not to use the Oxford Comma (also called a Serial Comma.) I recommend that business writers use it because of consistency and clarification advantages. 76. Grammar Rules are InflexibleGrammarianswho believe a grammar rule should never be broken are called prescriptivists. 77. Grammar Rules are FlexibleGrammarians who believe language is more flexible, and grammar rules may be broken, are called descriptivists. 78. My Recommendation on the Prescriptivist vs. DescriptivistDivideIn business writing, it’s best to stick with established grammar rules because a client or potential customer could see what they perceive as an error and believe your work is simply sloppy. USE ABUSINESS WRITING TOOL For all the best business writing tools check out our full article here. 79. Best Grammar and Editing ToolGrammarly is our top business writing tool recommendation. Use it as the last check before you send anything. It will also detect plagiarism. Don't forgetplagiarism applies to text as well as images. 80. Cut the Bloat ToolHemingway is a free app that detects bloat in your writing. 81. Best Tool You Already HaveMicrosoft Readability Measurement Tool, already embedded in Word and Outlook, provides helpfulbusiness writing clarity measurements. Grammarly is better. 82. Tone AnalyzerTone Analyzer assesses the tone of your business writing. 83. Jargon DetectorUnsuck It is a rude, but useful, tool that assesses business writing jargon. 84. Free Concept Mapping ToolFreemind is free mind mapping software that is very easy to use. 85. How to Easily Learn Concept MappingThis tutorial will teach you to use Freemind in ten minutes. 86. Hire the Better Writer In his insightfulbook, Rework, Jason Fried stated: All things being equal, hire the better writer. Good writers know what to include and what to omit. They understand people and motivation. They can express complex information in a way it can be shared. Whether the position is sales, engineering, software development, or HR, always hire the better writer. I agree with Jason Fried. However, business writing is a skill that can be honed. Since 1998, my company, Instructional Solutions, and I have helped thousands of individuals and hundreds of companies write better at work. 87. Subscribe to Our Blog We wanted to add one last tip! If you liked this article you can subscribe to our blog here. We often write articles focused on helping you become a better professional writer. That's the list! If you have a tip that I missed please comment below! I would love to hear what tips you have! Bonus: 19 Actionable Writing Tips Infographic:

Culinary Arts Past, Present and Future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Culinary Arts Past, Present and Future - Essay Example Italian Caterina de Medici, who was born in 1519, was the niece of Lorenzo ‘The Magnificent’ de Medici, who ruled Florence {Italy}. She automatically obtained French nationality when she married Henry of Orleans, the King of France, at an early age. When she relocated to France from Italy, Caterina brought along a large entourage that included several cooks, all experts in Italian cooking which had contributed to the gastronomical supremacy of Florence for centuries. The exposition of their expertise by the Florentine cooks in France set off such a revolution in the history of culinary art that Caterina de Medici, without whom it would never have come about, is credited with laying the foundation for modern cuisine to flourish. The Florentine cooks introduced to the French new dishes such as peas and beans, duck in orange {canard a l’orange}, bà ©chamel {balsa mella}, crepes {crespelle} and onion soup {carabaccia}. The cooks specializing in pastry-making displaye d their expertise with items like pasta, fruits in syrup, marmalades, ice creams and sorbets. The Italians also demonstrated a totally new protocol of the dining table {in which Florence was far better than other Europeans} consisting of elegant table setting, high-quality silverware and glasses, fine embroidery and napkins, delightful perfumes and luxurious lingerie, and most of all, proper table etiquette. The impressive Italian contribution was topped by Caterina who unveiled the fork and demonstrated how it should be used. The Italian revelations enriched the existing French culinary arts {which was in a productive discipline of its own} allowing the French to improve and add to their own achievements (Chef2Chef Recipe Club). Nearly 100 years after Caterina de Medici and her Italian entourage began the French culinary arts’ revolutionizing process in France during the 16th century, a valuable and spurring contribution was provided by Francois Vatel,